In the area of biotechnological inventions, the following list of exceptions to patentability under Art. 53(a) and Art. 53(b) is laid down in Rule 28. Under Art. 53(a) the list is illustrative and non-exhaustive and is to be seen as giving concrete form to the concept of "ordre public" and "morality" in this technical field. A possible immoral use is only to be taken into account if it is specifically considered or at least suggested in the application and can thus be found to constitute an avowed use (G-II, 4.1, and T 866/01).

According to Rule 28(2), plants and animals exclusively obtained by means of an essentially biological process are excluded from patentability. This exclusion regarding plants and animals exclusively obtained by means of an essentially biological process applies to patent applications with a filing date and/or a priority date after 1 July 2017. It does not apply to patents granted before that date or to pending patent applications with a filing date and/or a priority date before 1 July 2017 (see G 3/19, OJ EPO 2020, A119).

Under Art. 53(a), in conjunction with Rule 28(1), European patents are not to be granted in respect of biotechnological inventions which concern:[Rule 28(1); ]

(i)Processes for cloning human beings [Rule 28(1)(a); ]

For the purpose of this exception, a process for the cloning of human beings may be defined as any process, including techniques of embryo splitting, designed to create a human being with the same nuclear genetic information as another living or deceased human being (EU Dir. 98/44/EC, rec. 41).

(ii)Processes for modifying the germ line genetic identity of human beings [Rule 28(1)(b); ]

(iii)Uses of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes [Rule 28(1)(c); ]

A claim directed to a product which at the filing date of the application could be exclusively obtained by a method which necessarily involved the destruction of human embryos from which the said product is derived is excluded from patentability under Rule 28(1)(c), even if said method is not part of the claim (see G 2/06). The point in time at which such destruction takes place is irrelevant (T 2221/10).

When examining subject-matter relating to human embryonic stem cells under Art. 53(a) and Rule 28(1)(c), the following has to be taken into account:

The exclusion of the use of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes does not affect inventions for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes which are applied to the human embryo and are useful to it (EU Dir. 98/44/EC, rec. 42).

(iv)Processes for modifying the genetic identity of animals which are likely to cause them suffering without any substantial medical benefit to man or animal, and also animals resulting from such processes [Rule 28(1)(d); ]

The substantial medical benefit referred to above includes any benefit in terms of research, prevention, diagnosis or therapy (EU Dir. 98/44/EC, rec. 45).

In addition, the human body, at the various stages of its formation and development, and the simple discovery of one of its elements, including the sequence or partial sequence of a gene, cannot constitute patentable inventions (see, however, G‑II, 5.2). Such stages in the formation or development of the human body include germ cells (EU Dir. 98/44/EC, rec. 16).[Rule 29(1); ]

Also excluded from patentability under Art. 53(a) are processes to produce chimeras from germ cells or totipotent cells of humans and animals (EU Dir. 98/44/EC, rec. 38).